Virginia Cover Crops Fact Sheet Series No. 2: Cover Crop Performance Evaluation in Field and Controlled Studies

ID

CSES-121NP (SPES-240NP)

Authors as Published

Cathy Fleming and Wade Thomason, Dept. of Crop & Soil Environmental Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061

Introduction

Cover crops increase soil organic matter, reduce erosion, suppress weeds, forage for nutrients, and reduce fertilizer costs (Clark, 2007). Cover crop species vary greatly and provide varied benefits. Performance evaluation of cover crop species and mixtures is needed in Virginia. The species of interest that we evaluated were:

Early cover hairy vetch (Vicia villosa) is a summer and winter annual legume. It is a N source, weed suppressor, topsoil conditioner, and erosion reducer. Vetch is described as a “semi-viney legume with tendrils; plants hairy; stems 3-5’ long; flowers bluish violet and white” with approximately 21,000 seeds per pound with test weights of 60 pounds per bushel (Abaye et al., 2000).

Austrian winter pea (Pisum arense) is a summer and winter annual legume (winter crop on the East coast and South region US) resembling garden pea with purple flowers. The abundant hollow-stemmed vining forage can be tilled and decompose easily, providing a quick source of N. It also acts as a weed suppressor and a forage. There are approximately 5,000 seeds per pound with test weights of 60 pounds per bushel (Abaye et al., 2000; Clark, 2007).

Common vetch (Vicia sativa L.) is a viney cool season annual legume with leaves composed of 4 to 10 paired leaflets and a taproot that can reach depths of 3 to 50 feet. Common vetch produces purple and white flowers and seeds develop in small brown pods. It accumulates N, suppresses weeds, and is moderately resistant to cold temperatures (Sattell et al., 1998).

Persian clover (Trifolium resupinatum L.) is a winter annual legume. It has non-hairy, oval leaflets with toothed margins, and small pink flowers that produce olive green to purple seeds. It is good to use for grazing, however, it is sensitive to weed competition (Hoover and Duiker, 2009; Mississippi State University, 2010).

Indian head lentil (Lens culinaris Medik) is a specialty lentil for cover crop use. Lentils are a cool season annual crop with compound leaves (4 to 7 pairs of leaflets) with a tendril at the tips. At flowering, “each flower produces a short pod containing one or two lens-shaped seeds. Flowers can be white, lilac or pale blue in color and are self-pollinated. At maturity plants tend to lodge because of their weak stems.” “The seeds (2 to 7 mm in diameter) come in colors of tan, brown, or black, and some varieties produce purple or black mottled seeds. Lentil seed number varies from 15,600 to 100,000 seeds/lb” (Oplinger, et al., 1990).

Yellow sweet blossom clover (Melilotus officinalis, Melilotus alba) is a biennial summer or winter annual legume. It can help build the soil, act as a fertility source, subsoil aerator, weed suppressor, and erosion preventer. This tall-growing, drought-tolerant plant has a taproot that can extract nutrients that have moved lower in the soil profile. It produces vegetative growth up to 24 inches in the establishment year. Plants can reach 8 feet tall and features bracts of tiny blooms through the second year. Abaye et al. (2000), describes yellow sweet blossom clover as “erect with many branches; deep taproot; stems grow from crown second year; yellow or white flowers; 2-5’ tall, leaflets notched on edges toward tips (unlike alfalfa with smooth edges). Plants and flowers have a sweetvanilla odor.” There are approximately 5000-8000 seeds per pound with test weights of 26-30 pounds per bushel(Abaye et al., 2000).

Arrowhead clover (Trifolium vesiculosum) is a drought tolerant annual winter legume with non-hairy, arrowhead-shaped leaves with pronounced veins and a white “V” marking. Blooms are white that can turn pink or purple. The stems are hollow, and fibrous at maturity. Arrowhead clover is often used for grazing (Ball et al., 2005).

Subterranean clovers (Trifolium subterraneum, T. yanninicum, T. brachycalcycinum) are reseeding cool season annual legumes. They aid in weed and erosion suppression, act as a N source, and provide a mulch and continuous orchard floor cover. They generally pile up their biomass in a compact layer close to the ground (Clark, 2007).

Crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum) is a winter or summer annual legume. It grows rapidly and provides early season N for full-season crops, builds soil, and prevents erosion. Crimson clover has a “central taproot with many fibrous roots; 3 leaflets per leaf; stem and leaves hairy; pointed, conical flower at top of stem is bright crimson color; plants [stand] 1-3’ tall.” There are approximately 150,000 seeds per pound with test weights of 60 pounds per bushel (Abaye et al., 2000).

Sweet lupin – Lupins are cool-season annual legumes that provide N and have aggressive taproots. “Sweet” varieties, as opposed to “bitter” types, refer to lower concentrations of naturally occurring alkaloids. White lupin (Lupinus albus L.) and blue or narrow-leaf lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.) are grown in the southeastern US (Clark, 2007).

Forage radish (Raphanus sativus) is a cool season annual. It is known for the taproot which can capture nutrients that have moved to deep depths in the soil profile. The plant can grow to a height of 2-3 ft (Clark, 2007).

Phacelia (Phacelia tanacetifolia) is an annual broadleaf that is native to the US and being reintroduced to be used as a cover crop. It is a heavy biomass producer and its flowers attract pollinating insects (Hoover and Duiker, 2009).

Rye (Secale cereale) is a cool season annual cereal grain. This hardy quick-growing cereal will scavenge for excess N, prevent erosion, add organic matter, and suppress weeds. “Seedings often have a reddish coloration; leaves have small auricles with short ligules; seeds are round with the germ-end distinctly pointed; seed color varies from greenish gray and tan to dark brown or black.” There are approximately 18,000 seeds per pound with test weights of 56 pounds per bushel (Abaye et al., 2000).

Barley (Hordeum vulgare) is a cool season annual cereal grain. It can be grown to prevent erosion, suppress weeds, scavenge excess nutrients, and add organic matter. “Leaves are green with long clasping auricles and a long ligule. Seed usually contains the husk (lemma and palea) that gives the seed a wrinkled appearance. Newer varieties maybe ‘hulless’ since the lemma and palea are removed at harvest.” There are approximately 13,000 seeds per pound with test weights of 48, 57.6, and 60 pounds per bushel for hulled, hulless for feed, and hulless for human consumption varieties, respectively (Abaye et al., 2000).

Spring oat (Avena sativa) is a cool season annual cereal. This quick-growing upright annual grass can suppress weeds, prevent erosion, scavenge excess nutrients, add biomass, and act as a nurse crop (Clark, 2007). “Panicle type head; long ligule, auricles absent; leaf margins are heavy; seed usually retains the husk (lemma and palea), which has a very smooth surface; seed color varies with variety from white, yellow, gray to somewhat red. Winter oats require a period of cold temperature to initiate heading. Spring oats have no temperature requirement.” There are approximately 14,000 seeds per pound with test weights of 32 pounds per bushel (Abaye et al., 2000).

Wooly pod vetch (Lana) (Vicia villosa ssp. dasycarpa) is a cool season annual that is a faster-growing alternative to hairy vetch in Hardiness Zone 7 and warmer. It is a good N source, weed suppressor, erosion preventer, adds organic matter to soil and attracts bees. “Wooly pod vetch has slightly smaller flowers than hairy vetch, and its seeds are more oval than the nearly round seeds of hairy vetch” (Clark, 2007). 

Canola (or rape), has two species commonly grown: Brassica napus and Brassica rapa. Brassica napus is a cool season annual in the mustard family with large dark green leaves. Brassicas help prevent erosion, suppress weeds and soil born pests, alleviate soil compaction via taproots, and scavenge nutrients. “At maturity it reaches a height of 3-6’ with brilliant yellow flowers and pods that produce 15-40 small black seeds.” There are approximately 160,000 seeds per pound with test weights of 50 pounds per bushel (Abaye et al., 2000).

Ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum), also known as Italian ryegrass, is a cool season annual grass. It is a quick growing, non-spreading bunch grass used to prevent erosion, improve soil structure and drainage, add organic matter, suppress weeds, and scavenge for nutrients. It has shiny, smooth leaves rolled in the bud, with long and narrow auricles, a short ligule, and spikelets edgewise on the stem with awns on the seed. There are approximately 227,000 seeds per pound with test weights of 24 pounds per bushel (Abaye et al., 2000; Clark, 2007).

Controlled environment chamber trials

In order to compare growth rate of various cover crop species under uniform conditions, seeds of 13 of the cover crop listed in Table 1 were planted into potting media in four-inch pots, watered to 85% field capacity and placed in a growth chamber in four replications. The chamber was set to deliver a 12 hour day/12 hour night light regime and day/night temperatures were set to mimic those experienced in eastern Virginia in late September with 75° days and 55° nights. Growing degree days (GDD, Celsius) with a base of 4°C were calculated and when accumulated GDD reached 200, 400, 600, and 800, pots were removed and all aboveground plant growth clipped at the soil level, dried, and weighed to determine biomass accumulation. Initial growth rate was greatest for forage radish, canola and phacelia. It should be noted, however that temperatures were maintained at the 75/55° level throughout the study and that growth rate of some of these species would slow dramatically if temperatures in the chambers would have been decreased over time. Among the cereal grains, barley and rye produced the greatest biomass by 400 GDD. Most of the legume cover crops accumulate little (less than 250 lb/ac) biomass prior to accumulating 400 GDD.

Table 1. Cover crop dry matter growth in response to GDD accumulation under controlled conditions..
--Aboveground dry matter, lb/ac--
Cover Crop Species 200 GDD 400 GDD 600 GDD 800 GDD

Australian Winter Pea

42

402

2012

5705

Barley

24

617

2318

5580

Canola

41

884

3307

5006

Common Vetch

21

234

1289

3855

Crimson Clover

23

237

946

3106

Early Cover Hairy Vetch

17

226

1666

3673

Phacelia

19

825

2426

4521

Rye

35

425

2394

5654

Ryegrass

5

158

1524

5049

Spring Oats

14

381

1642

5424

Sweet Lupin

36

253

648

1460

Forage Radish

136

1304

4142

7175

Woolypod Vetch

27

417

1775

5322

Mean

34

489

2007

4733

LSD (0.05)

23

241

647

1159

Field trials

Field trials were conducted at five locations in Virginia; three western sites (Blacksburg, Mauzy, and Edinburg) and two eastern sites [New Kent County and the Virginia State University (VSU) Randolph Farm in Petersburg, VA] during Winter/Spring of 2010-2011 and 2011-2012. Plots were planted no-till into corn grain or silage stubble at seeding rates indicated in Table 2.

Table 2. Treatments and seeding rates for cover crop species.
Cover Crop Seeding Rate (lb/ac)

Early cover hairy vetch

20

Austrian winter pea

35

Common vetch

35

Persian clover

5

Indian head lentil

25

Yellow sweet blossom clover

5

Arrowhead clover

5

Subterranean clover

15

Crimson clover

15

Sweet lupin

50

Forage radish

8

Phacelia

8

Rye

113

Barley

96

Spring oat

64

Ryegrass

20

Wooly pod vetch (Lana)

20

Barley+crimson clover+forage radish

48+20+5

Rye+wooly pod vetch+Austrian winter pea+forage radish

56+13+13+5

Rye+ryegrass+forage radish

84+20+5

Spring oat+canola

32+4

Spring oat+forage radish

64+5

Barley+crimson clover+wooly pod vetch+Austrian winter pea+ forage radish+canola

20+8+8+8+3+3

Ryegrass+crimson clover+wooly pod vetch+Austrian winter pea +forage radish+canola

20+8+8+8+3+3  

Cover crop species and mixtures were evaluated under rain-fed conditions and no fertilizer applications. In 2010/2011, 25 treatments were evaluated in the western trials. The treatments containing ryegrass were not included in the eastern trials, resulting in 22 treatments. In 2011/2012, some treatments were eliminated, while a spring oat+barley treatment was added, resulting in 20 and 17 treatments in the western and eastern sites, respectively. The experiment was a randomized complete block design with three replications at each location.

Two harvests were conducted to collect biomass; the first harvest (Winter) occurred in December and the second harvest occurred in March/April (Spring), depending on the site. The objective in every case was to manage the trials in the same manner as the farmer, so the spring harvest timing occurred just prior to terminating the cover crop. The clipped aboveground biomass was dried in a forced-air oven at 60°C for 48 hours, and ground to pass a 2mm screen with a Wiley (Thomas Scientific, Swedesboro, NJ) sample mill. Nitrogen uptake was measured from a ground subsample of the dried biomass using an automatic CN analyzer (Leco Corp, St. Joseph, MI).

Results

Field Trials

The Eastern sites in 2011 (Table 3) resulted in treatment mixtures of barley+crimson clover+wooly pod vetch+Austrian winter pea+tillage radish+canola and rye+wooly pod vetch+Austrian winter pea+tillage radish producing the greatest amounts of dry matter and N uptake in both the winter and spring. These treatments were similar to other treatments in biomass production and N uptake in the winter and spring; however, only these treatments resulted in consistently high numbers. Generally, treatments with smaller biomass production also resulted in lower N uptake. This occurred in the winter and spring for Austrian winter pea, common vetch, Persian clover, Indian head lentil, yellow sweet blossom clover, arrowhead clover, and subterranean clover. Smaller biomass production and N uptake was also observed in crimson clover, sweet lupins, tillage radish, and phacelia in the spring.

Table 3. Dry matter (DM) biomass and N uptake for 2011 Eastern sites (New Kent County and the VSU Randolph Farm in Petersburg).
SPECIES/MIXTURE

WINTER

DM BIOMASS

----LB/AC----

WINTER

N UPTAKE

----LB/AC----

SPRING

DM BIOMASS

----LB/AC----

SPRING

N UPTAKE

----LB/AC----


Early cover hairy vetch

130 g†

4 f

2394 cd

63 bc

Austrian winter pea

942 bcdefg

18 def

707 e

19 d

Common vetch

846 bcdefg

16 def

536 e

16 d

Persian clover

299 efg

5 f

262 e

5 d

Indian head lentil

643 cdefg

16 def

0 e

0 d

Yellow sweet blossom clover

343 defg

8 ef

872 e

17 d

Arrowhead clover

144 fg

2 f

249 e

5 d

Subterranean clover

281 efg

4 f

258 e

5 d

Crimson clover

1126 abcde

19 cdef

995 e

27 d

Sweet lupin

693 cdefg

19 cdef

1133 e

23 d

Forage radish

1689 ab

53 a

206 e

4 d

Phacelia

1219 abc

31 bcd

236 e

5 d

Rye

1125 abcd

32 bcd

2823 c

62 c

Barley

1364 abc

40 ab

4378 ab

87 bc

Spring oat

1059 abcdef

29 bcd

1215 de

21 d

Wooly pod vetch (Lana)

1305 abc

37 abc

2454 c

81 bc

Barley+crimson clover+forage radish

1111 abcde

31 bcd

3274 bc

67 bc

Rye+wooly pod vetch+Austrian winter
pea+forage radish

1335 abc

39 ab

4352 ab

92 ab

Spring oat+canola

931 bcdefg

25 bcde

3574 abc

67 bc

Spring oat+forage radish

1318 abc

38 ab

1071 e

22 d

Barley+crimson clover+wooly pod vetch
+Austrian winter pea+forage radish+canola

1812 a

53 a

4576 a

121 a

† Means followed by different lower case letters within a column are significantly different ( alpha = 0.05).

The Western sites in 2011 (Table 4) resulted in treatment mixtures of rye+wooly pod vetch+Austrian winter pea+tillage radish and rye+ryegrass+tillage radish producing the greatest amounts of dry matter and N uptake in both the winter and spring. These treatments were similar to other treatments in biomass production and N uptake in the winter and spring; however, only these treatments resulted in consistently high numbers. In the winter, all of the treatments with a mixture of cover crops resulted in the greater amounts of biomass and N uptake than other single-crop treatments in winter. Similar to results in the Eastern sites in 2011, common vetch, Persian clover, Indian head lentil, yellow sweet blossom clover, arrowhead clover, and subterranean clover resulted in the lowest biomass and N uptake over the winter and spring.

Table 4. Dry matter (DM) biomass and N uptake for 2011 Western sites (Blacksburg, Mauzy, and Edinburg).
SPECIES/MIXTURE

WINTER

DM BIOMASS

----LB/AC----

WINTER

N UPTAKE

----LB/AC----

SPRING

DM BIOMASS

----LB/AC----

SPRING

N UPTAKE

----LB/AC----


Early cover hairy vetch

830 fgh†

27 defgh

1550 fghi

56 bcdefg

Austrian winter pea

964 efgh

35 cdefgh

1105 ghij

72 bcde

Common vetch

1091 defgh

38 cdefgh

832 ghij

32 defgh

Persian clover

585 h

20 gh

142 j

2 h

Indian head lentil

666 gh

25 efgh

215 j

8 fgh

Yellow sweet blossom clover

145 h

2 h

 178 j

4 gh

Arrowhead clover

216 h

5 h

282 j

8 fgh

Subterranean clover

54 h

1 h

124 j

4 gh

Crimson clover

1039 defgh

30 defgh

1934 defg

60 bcdef

Sweet lupin

585 h

20 fgh

420 ij

13 fgh

Forage radish

2671 abc

96 abcde

120 j

5 gh

Phacelia

2662 abc

104 abc

158 j

4 gh

Rye

2831 abc

87 abcdefg

4485 a

134 a

Barley

3650 a

153 a

2622 cdef

86 abc

Spring oat

2241 abcdef

79 bcdefg

667 hij

13 fgh

Ryegrass

1495 bcdefgh

1495 bcdefgh

1698 efgh

43 cdefgh

Wooly pod vetch (Lana)

1321 cdefgh

50 bcdefgh

2010 defg

68 bcde

Barley+crimson+forage radish

3027 a

116 ab

3054 bcd

91 abc

Rye+wooly pod vetch+Austrian winter pea
+forage radish

2890 ab

92 abcde

3797 abc

97 ab

Rye+ryegrass+forage radish

2650 abc

97 abcd

3938 ab

106 ab

Spring oat+canola

2560 abcd

91 abcdef

2651 cdef

81 abcd

Spring oat+forage radish

2792 abc

102 abc

1085 ghij

21 efgh

Barley+crimson clover+wooly pod vetch
+Austrian winter pea+forage radish+canola

2482 abcde

92 abcde

2874 bcde

77 bcd

Ryegrass+crimson clover+wooly pod vetch
+Austrian winter pea+forage radish+canola

2335 abcdef

87 abcdefg

2574 cdef

81 abcd

† Means followed by different lower case letters within a column are significantly different ( alpha = 0.05).

Treatments with mixed species resulted in greater biomass in the winter of the Eastern sites in 2012 (Table 5). Several single-species treatments were similar to multi-species treatments in biomass production including crimson clover, sweet lupins, tillage radish, rye, barely, and spring oats. No differences in N uptake were observed in the winter, 2012. In the spring of 2012, there were no differences in biomass production; however, differences in N uptake were observed. Early cover hairy vetch and wooly pod vetch resulted in the greatest N uptake, which were similar in N uptake to common vetch, crimson clover, rye, barley, barley+crimson clover+tillage radish, rye+wooly pod vetch+Austrian winter pea+tillage radish, and wooly pod vetch+Austrian winter pea+tillage radish+canola.

Table 5. Dry matter (DM) biomass and N uptake for 2012 Eastern sites (New Kent County and the VSU Randolph Farm in Petersburg).
SPECIES/MIXTURE

WINTER

DM BIOMASS

----LB/AC----

WINTER

N UPTAKE

----LB/AC----

SPRING

DM BIOMASS

----LB/AC----

SPRING

N UPTAKE

----LB/AC----


Early cover hairy vetch

250 bcde†

10 NS

750 NS

25 a

Austrian winter pea

215 cde

11

140

5 def

Common vetch

159 de

9

411

17 abcde

Crimson clover

376 abc

10

697

20 abcd

Sweet lupin

481 a

9

465

6 cdef

Forage radish

394 ab

12

7

0 f

Phacelia

104 e

4

10

0 ef

Rye

416 ab

9

647

14 abcdef

Barley

435 a

8

870

12 abcdef

Spring oat

411 ab

8

655

9 bcdef

Wooly pod vetch (Lana)

215 cde

8

699

25 a

Barley+crimson clover+forage radish

471 a

11

986

23 ab

Rye+wooly pod vetch+Austrian winter pea
+forage radish

495 a

13

664

16 abcde

Spring oat+canola

483 a

8

469

8 bcdef

Spring oat+forage radish

434 a

10

531

8 bcdef

Spring oat+barley

334 abcd

6

718

9 bcdef

Barley+crimson clover+wooly pod vetch
+Austrian winter pea+forage radish+canola

352 abc

11

799

21 abc

† Means followed by different lower case letters within a column are significantly different ( alpha = 0.05).

On the Western sites in 2012 (Table 6), early cover hairy vetch, Austrian winter pea, and common vetch resulted in the lowest biomass production and N uptake in both the winter and spring. Multi-species treatments of barley+crimson clover+tillage radish, rye+ryegrass+tillage radish, spring oat+barley, and ryegrass+crimson clover+wooly pod vetch+Austrian winter pea+tillage radish+canola, along with the single-species barley treatment resulted in higher rates of biomass and N uptake than other treatments in both winter and spring.

Table 6. Dry matter (DM) biomass and N uptake for 2012 Western sites (Blacksburg, Mauzy, and Edinburg).
SPECIES/MIXTURE

WINTER

DM BIOMASS

----LB/AC----

WINTER

N UPTAKE

----LB/AC----

SPRING

DM BIOMASS

----LB/AC----

SPRING

N UPTAKE

----LB/AC----


Early cover hairy vetch

63 g†

4 h

800 ghi

24 efghij

Austrian winter pea

144 g

5 gh

307 i

9 ij

Common vetch

209 defg

6 fgh

323 i

8 j

Crimson clover

199 fg

7 efgh

1915 bcdef

57 a

Sweet lupin

207 efg

7 efgh

903 fghi

14 ghij

Tillage radish

386 cdef

12 bcde

510 hi

10 hij

Phacelia

384 cdef

11 cdef

1619 cdefg

39 abcdef

Rye

632 ab

18 ab

1548 defgh

28 defgh

Barley

721 a

19 a

2950 ab

49 abc

Spring oat

498 bc

15 abcd

1910 bcdef

27 defghi

Ryegrass

414 cd

11 cdefg

1414 efgh

19 fghij

Wooly pod vetch (Lana)

71 g

2 h

1277 efghi

37 bcdef

Barley+crimson clover+forage radish

700 ab

18 ab

2740 ab

55 ab

Rye+wooly pod vetch+Austrian winter pea
+tillage radish

651 ab

20 a

2005 bcde

42 abcde

Rye+ryegrass+tillage radish

670 ab

17 abc

2615 abc

45 abcd

Spring oat+canola

242 defg

8 defgh

2000 bcde

31 cdefg

Spring oat+tillage radish

414 cd

11 cdefg

2471 abcd

37 bcdef

Spring oat+barley

666 ab

16 abc

3457 a

53 ab

Barley+crimson clover+wooly pod vetch
+Austrian winter pea+tillage radish+canola

410 cde

11 cdefg

2539 abcd

52 ab

Ryegrass+crimson clover+wooly pod vetch
+Austrian winter pea+tillage radish+canola

518 abc

15 abc

2875 ab

53 ab

† Means followed by different lower case letters within a column are significantly different ( alpha = 0.05).

References

Abaye, A.O., D. Whitt, S. Umberger, C.W. Swann, C.C. Stallings, et al. 2000. Agronomy Handbook. Publication 424-100. Virginia Coop. Ext., Virginia Tech, Virginia State University, Blacksburg, VA.

Clark A. 2007. Managing cover crops profitability. 3rd ed. Handbook series book 9. Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education, Beltsville, MD.

Ball, D.M., G.D. Lacefield, and C.S. Hoveland. 2005. Arrowleaf Clover. Circular 05-1. Oregon Clover Commission, Salem, Oregon.

Hoover, R., and S. Duiker. 2009. On-farm research investigated new cover crop options. Penn State Extension. http://extension.psu.edu/plants/sustainable/news/2009/10/5covercrop (accessed 13 Sept. 2013).

Mississippi State University. 2010. Mississippi forages: Persian clover (Trifolium resupinatum). Mississippi Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station, Mississippi State University Ext. Serv. http://msucares.com/crops/forages/legumes/cool/persianclover.html (accessed 13 September 2013).

Opplinger, E.S., L.L. Hardman, A.R. Kaminski, K.A. Kelling, and J.D. Doll. 1990. Lentil. In: Alternative field crops manual. University of Wisconsin Cooperative Extension Service, the University of Minnesota Extension Service, and the Center for Alternative Plant and Animal Products. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/lentil.html (accessed 13 Sept. 2013).

Sattell, R., R. Dick, J. Luna, D. McGrath, and E. Peachy. 1998. Common vetch (Vicia sativa L.). EM 8695. Oregon State University. 
http://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1957/15229/em8695.pdf (accessed 13 Sept. 2013).


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Publication Date

September 23, 2020